Ecological Refugees: Resettlement & Rehabilitation Success

The people who are displaced due to dam construction in the new place and land provided for the resettlement which happens to be forest lands or degraded land which had never been inhabited by humans. As the people who are displaced from the construction side face many problems due to several constraints. The resettlers are fully dependent on the agriculture and the natural resources as they provide new places for their resettlement but without knowing more about the socio-economic needs of the people. There is little social concern and mobilisation by the civil society for such expansive displacement and issues like Resettlement and Rehabilitation (R&R) policy, right to livelihood, right to housing, etc. are hardly recognised. It is easier to mobilise public support and hence struggle against development projects that offer easy identification of the displacing agency. Tribal people in forests or those displaced from rural areas invite public sympathy but dispossessed urban migrants get stigmatized. If women migrate, they work as domestic workers, daily wage earners, etc. Their additional income is extremely important for the family since it is often used to finance their children’s education and health. They suffer great hardships in urban slums with regard to sanitation and privacy. Changes in policies and laws are modified and effective institutions are in place to deliver the goods. Issues of human rights, good governance, participation, people centered and decentralised development dominated the discussions. Projects get rationalised in terms of cost benefit analysis. Their entire focus is on the monetised economy. The National Committee for the Protection of natural resources attempt to combine land acquisition and R&R into one policy framework. The legality of actions of the state in displacing people allows the characterization of protest as illegal. There is illegalisation of protest and an aggrandizement of state power over people. Such notions of illegality have created an “us” and a “them” in public policy. The displaced people are seen as obstacles to development and are subject to the coercive rigours of the law. Even bodies recently have failed to protect the rights of displaced people and legitimise and legalise state actions around demolishing homes or displacing entire communities. It is important to explore mechanisms for rehabilitation. Displaced people must be better off than the project beneficiaries. Displaced people should be promised on their property rights. Rehabilitation and compensation should take into consideration loss of livelihood and shelter, security and work. The issues of displacement, development and R&R cannot be holistically understood without reference to the policies and programmes of multilateral and bilateral agencies, particularly the World Bank, Asian Development Bank and United Nation Development Program. The World Bank has been the single largest international donor for development initiatives in India.

Management of Plant Nursery for Successful Afforestation

Plant nursery plays important role in successful and economical afforestation program. Management plan is essentially required for managing nursery and to get suitable quantity of plants and seedlings as and when required. The documentation of management plan is also important to workout budget and schedule for the annual or long term plan. The management plan enlists both the short and long-term measures required for raising region specific priority species. Raising of plants in nursery is a costly and labour intensive activity if not planned properly. Before starting nursery basic infrastructure is required to support irrigation, fertiliser application, treatment to protect from pests, funguses, different pathogens etc. and protect germination from frost and provide suitable moist and shed at early stage of development. For efficient nursery management nursery need to divide into sub units viz., nursery area and propagation complex. Nursery area includes the nursery bed area and composting unit, whereas the propagation complex includes the mist chamber, hardening chamber, net house and soil mix preparation yard. Nursery area involves operations through out the year for raising quality planting material. Root trainers are mostly used in nursery for raising the planting material. Time schedule for major operations is very important to get best results. For composting September to October are suitable months, soil preparation, sieving could be done from December to March, ploy bags and pot filling between February to March and seed sowing between March to September months. Nursery experiments are usually 4-6 months duration experiments so their complete details such as design of experiments, duration of experiment, and nature of experiment received in first year. Such experiment give opportunity to understand ability of different species to reproduce by vegetative means mainly rooting of branch cuttings, nodal cuttings, juvenile shoot cuttings, rhizome cuttings, root cuttings, cladode cuttings etc. We can get good quality and fast growing planting material. Management of Nursery is a collective exercise and more research oriented schemes align with commercial enterprises. The composting unit is the main unit of nursery hence the time-to-time evaluation of the quality of the compost should be done and necessary pest and pathogen treatment to avoid and disease in the plants.

Biogas: Sustainable Energy Source

Presently the world population is more than 6 billion and as per the United Nations estimates it will increase to 8 billion by 2025. To meet future energy demand it has recognized by scientist that something has to be done for the large global population of about 2 billion people live below the poverty line, whose needs have to be addressed on priority basis, so that they are not margilised further due to globalization of economy and unequal sharing of resources and wealth. Biogas is important source of green and clean energy. Biogas is produced from biological breakdown of organic matter in absence of oxygen. Organic material such as animal dung, kitchen waste dead plants etc. could use as gaseous fuel. Methane and carbon dioxide are two gases which provide good caloric values to biogas when used as fuel. Biogas also has small quantity of hydrogen sulphide, moisture which causes pungent smell. Biogas produced from the anaerobic disintegration of manure in small- pit is called gobar gas; it is estimated that over two million households in India are able to use gobar gas due easily availability of cattle dung. It is popular source of fuel in many parts. The biogas plant is circular pit made of concrete with a pipe connection. The manure and waste material is directed to the pit through channels. The pit is also used waste water which help in fermentation through bacteria. The gas pipe is connected to supply points. Biogas plant help in get rid of organic waste and cattle dung in safe manner otherwise which could have adverse impact to environment by releasing methane directly to environment and spread diseases. Biogas plant is very simple and environment friendly sustainable source of energy because more people and more cattle more waste and more dung available to use respectively. Byproduct of biogas plant used as compost in agriculture and gardening. Most biogas plants which are operational in India are designed for cattle dung as their main raw material so very common used in rural areas. For fuel in rural area people are dependent on forest which causes damage to forest. Implementation of biogas plant help in reducing pressure on forest for fuel wood and saving in cost as compared to the use of kerosene or liquidify petroleum gas (LPG) for cooking. The biogas plant cost is around INR 8,000/- for 1 m3 capacity and Government also gives subsidy for construction of biogas plant. For one household, biogas saves 100 kg of LPG or 275 litres of kerosene per year, which is equivalent to 400 to 800 kg CO2 per year. People in village could save around 3 tonnes of wood per year with the use of biogas this helps in reduction of 5 tonnes CO2 if burnt otherwise all these gases release to atmosphere and accelerate global warming. Waste generation is directly related with population growth and we need tangible solution to get ride off from generated waste with minimum impact to environment. Production of biogas from organic waste and cattle dung is the best sustainable source of energy.

Importance of Ecological Analysis for Biomass Management

Biomass (wood, fruits and leaves) growth efficiency of the regions depends upon the type, quantity and stratification of vegetation. Therefore, for any study on ecology of these areas, a quantitative evaluation of its vegetation is required. The quantitative study on structure of vegetation is called Phytosociology, the principal aim of which is to describe the vegetation, explain or predict its pattern and classify it in a meaningful way. It is also considered as a basic biological science to be applied for the concept and realization of land management. With the change in environmental condition the vegetation cover reflects several changes in its structure, density and composition. The species in a community grow together in a particular environment because they have similar requirements for existence in terms of various factors such as light, temperature, water drainage and soil nutrients. Plant communities can be defined as a collection of plant species growing together in a particular location that shows a definite association or affinity with each other. The ‘community coefficient’ concepts, a mathematical expression for the similarity of plant communities were put forth. Since the publication of Jaccard’s formula it has undergone several quantitative and qualitative modifications. The absence of the absolute boundaries between the adjacent plant communities and therefore he proposed the ‘continuum concept’ in phytosociological researches. In order to express the dominance and ecological success of any species with a single value, the concept of Importance Value Index (IVI) has been developed by Phillips in 1959. Phytosociological works in India are mainly confined to the temperate forests of Himalayas and very meager literature is available for the tropical forests. Phytosociological studies on the vegetation of Chhotaudepur Forest division; Eastern Gujarat has been conducted by Shah in 1978. The increase in human population in the last few decades, demanding developments in various spheres, has resulted directly or indirectly in the sudden and of the far reaching disturbances in natural ecosystems. This has caused increased stress on the plants as well as on the ecosystem. Biomass studies are essential for understanding nutrient cycling, organic and energy transfer and predicting the effects of tree utilization, management procedures or other disturbances on productivity and stability of forest stands. Accurate estimation of biomass is the fundamental step in the productivity management plan especially in case of tropical forests. Biomass and nutrient accumulation studies in the pure and mixed plantations of indigenous tree species can be used in the selection of tree species and harvest designs to favour productivity and nutrient conservation. During the past decade there has been a marked shift from considering the forest as a production system for wood, to a realization that the total organic production is important. Increased demands for forest products, the search for renewable resources and an increased concern for the well being of forest ecosystems are combining to stimulate study of the total forest biomass. There has been an explosion in both quality and diversity of forest productivity and biomass literature in the past several years.

Woman Empowerment and Livelihood Intervention

According to Grosset Webster dictionary ‘Empowerment’ indicates “the situation of authority or to be authorized or to be powerful”. In other words ‘Empower’ means to authorize, so ‘Empowerment’ is a process, which gives women power or authority to challenge some situation. When we discussed and talk about women’s development issues and think about women empowerment then empowerment of women look nourished by development policies and programs that could enable women to get enough strength to challenge their dutiful social condition or status. The definition of empowerment according to the concept of United Nations Development Program (UNDP) includes the expansion of choices for women and an increase of ability to exercise those choices when women are empowered. According to UNDP definition improvement in women’s access to economic opportunities through credit and employment program could expand their choices to take over. Health and education related program could enhance their capability to take advantage of those choices. The two elements in the definition of empowerment are not separate issue but interrelated. It is perceived that when a development program increases women’s choices of employment by providing credit facilities, it expands choices before them and should raise also their ability to exercise those choices. Different programs and actions those attempt to strengthen women’s capacity to choose or capacity to exercise their choices can expand their choices also. Common programs like schooling program for women should both increase their voice in the family and the range of job options open to them. Economic globalisation in more generalised terms is dominating the world socio-economic scenario for the last two decades. The process is having significant impacts on India. Effectiveness of public sector economic development programs is increasingly being questioned. Higher accountability and participatory approach are becoming more acceptable means for implementation of programs. To assess the roles of the public sector and voluntary organisations in the process of conducting economic development programs for women in India is playing important role. For better understanding it analyses whether implementation of economic development programs involuntarily improves the level of empowerment of women. Women are micro-entrepreneurs and engaged in self-employment business for many years in different ways like managing small budget for household. During several watershed management projects it highlights that various Non Government Organizations (NGOs) development programs have contributed more than other programs to improve the economic and social status of women beneficiaries. The success stories of several micro credit programs where women got empowerment in managing things are classical example of success. Woman self-help groups for livelihood generation and managing natural and common property resources are prominent. NGOs are having positive qualities that make them more successful in reaching the poorer sections of society. The major positive point lies in the NGO development strategy or approach. This approach includes participation, partnership and member accountability. This gives woman confidence and hand in managing things.

Geology and Biodiversity Richness of the Himalaya

India occupies a special status in terms of ecosystem, genetic and species diversity because of its location, physical features and eco-climatic conditions. Presently the guess estimates is that this subcontinent supports 81000 species of fauna and 45000 species of flora. India contributes about 167 species of plants whose origin and diversity is in this country. The increasing population of human as well as cattle, incompatible land use practices, uncontrolled grazing, intensive logging and mining of minerals are the causative factors for the degrade of Himalayan forest, opencast, mining, development of hydroelectric projects and other industries pose additional threats to the ecologically fragile mountain ecosystems of Himalayas. The Himalaya is the greatest and the youngest of all mountain systems which extend with a smooth sweep from northwest to southeast of about 2500 km and its width ranges between 250 to 300 km. The Himalaya consists of four longitudinal belts separated by faults. Its geological and topographical characters are strikingly different. To the north of the plains is Siwalik mountain belt whose width ranges from 10 to 50 km and altitude exceeds 900 m. The next mountain belt is the Lesser Himalayan Zone with width ranging between 60 to 80 km and average height rises to 3000 m. The third belt is the Great Himalaya comprising of high snow capped peaks. This zone consists of lower alpine zone upto 4800 m and upper snow bound zone usually above 5000 m. Finally the Trans-Himalayan zone with width ranging upto 40 km and containing the valley of the rivers rising behind the Great Himalaya. It is a storehouse of not only rich mineral deposits but also a unique area for paleo-climatological and biodiversity richness. Troll in 1967 reviewed the vegetation in relation to climates in the entire Himalayas. Bio-geographically the Himalayan range is a complex with sharp and distinct contrast, characterizes the eastern warm and humid and western cold and arid conditions with a blend of these elements for the central region. Himalayan biodiversity is the demonstration in genes, populations and ecosystems. It is rich in both plant and animal variety. Variation is the law of nature. It occurs everywhere and every moment. The variation takes place at micro level at a small space and over a short time period, but these become apparent only over a large space and big a time gap. The Himalayas abounds in forests, meadows, marshes, swamps with their characteristic described nine forest types Himalayan biodiversity originates at the gene level and extends through species, population, communities to ecosystem. Any kind of disturbance is a key factor in the dynamics of communities and it plays an important role in the functioning and maintains of the ecosystem. Creation of the supreme power meant for the benefit of all His creation. Individual species must therefore, learn to enjoy its benefits by forming a part of the system in close relation with other species. Native biodiversities a source of pride for each country, compassing as it does a shining part of the national heritage.

Strategy for Sustainable Afforestation

We are living in an era of dwindling natural resources and environmental deterioration. Global biodiversity is being lost at accelerating rate. Urbanization, industrialization and other human activities have resulted in deforestation and pollution causing great threat to the environment. It contains many interesting and valuable plants from scientific point of view, apart from the economically important ones. Now the realization has come all over the world that survival of mankind is not possible without forests, which is an important ecosystem of our planet earth. Forests with their myriad of flora and fauna are rich sources of gene pool. So conservation biologists have increased efforts to understand its decline and encourage its conservation. Genetic conservation started with biosphere reserves, sanctuaries and national parks all over the world as a part of the conservation strategy. The importance of preserving diversity is to maintain ecological balance, economic use of species and genetic material for evolving new varieties in agriculture, horticulture, veterinary and medical fields, proper maintenance of life system, preserve aesthetic and religious values, know the socio-economic value of a particular area and to preserve its culture and nature. This necessitates making inventory of diversity of the country and the monitoring. The proximate causes of biodiversity loss may be anthropological, biological, social, economic or political, but because of their direct and indirect benefit we cannot afford to loose the biological diversity. Soil evaluation has become important due to worldwide problem of conserving biological diversity. Although soil is formed by the result of weathering of parent rock, effect of climate, topography, plants, animals and age of land forms. All the factors affect the formation of the soil in several ways. The close relationship between geology, soil and vegetation is clearly visible by the effect shown by parent material and strong biological activity on soil formation and characteristics. Geological studies have special importance in forestry where tree growth lasts over a long period and depends to a large extent on the minerals as a source of nutrients in the soil. The knowledge of mineralogical behavior of soils at good natural sites and at degraded sites opens at possibilities of optimal management inputs to augment production of the biomass from good site as well as from degraded site after suitable amelioration. In the present intensified programme of raising large scale plantation, especially of fast growing species, the fertility potential depends largely on the mineralogical composition of the soil. The underlying parent material plays a vital role in determining the success or other-wise of the plantations especially over a number of rotations in a given year. Geological studies have been helpful in understanding the ecological status of forest growth and in investigating the various problems like deterioration in growth, quality, loss of vigor, mortality etc. in forest crops often caused by nutrient deficiency and other soil factors, some of which are related to mineralogical composition. Diagnostic support to determine the interrelationship between geology, soil and vegetation and worked out potential productivity of soil as a useful tool for sustainable management of degradated sites. Soil is being enriched through nutrient contribution from minerals. Such evaluation helpful for the managers and land users to have a thorough knowledge about the content and nature of minerals present in the soil in diagnosing the fertility status and other soil-plant-parent material relationship in forestry. It is useful to work out proper requirement of nutrients for a particular species for a sustainable activity on such sites. In order to implement and enhance the potential use of soil mineralogical evaluation, some guidelines are proposed for eco-rehabilitation of natural forest sites as well as degraded land. A detailed soil and vegetation survey should be carried out and site matched species as per mineralogical studies should be identified and planted. A comprehensive study of different geological parameters of the sites should be conducted. Mineralogical evaluation should be carried out occurring under different conditions of soil, climate and geology to bring out suitable remedial measures for sustainable afforestation.

Ecological Conservation in Doon-Mussoorie Mining Impacted Area

Mining for the extraction of the rich mineral resource of the Himalayan region has been going on since long. In view of the fact that Himalayas are rich in mineral resources and the fact that exploitation of these minerals brings revenue to the otherwise poor hill states, there has been continuous pressure from industrial sector of the country for these minerals. Limestone, phasphorite, gypsum magnetite and coal especially have been exploited most. The single most important mineral, which has been extensively mined in all regions of Himalaya, is limestone. Next to limestone in order of importance, number of leases and production is phosphate. In Uttaranchal hills limestone mining started much earlier but has now come down considerably after the intervention of Hon’ble Supreme Court of India in 1985. Mining affects the environment in vary diverse ways depending on the type of mining are excavated and ore over burden ratio etc. the resultant environment is not suitable directly for any productive use be it agriculture, forestry, pasture, recreation etc. Environmental amelioration of such degraded sites is a challenging task. In the past mining, particularly open cast mining caused the destruction of land resources, pollution of streams, contamination of ground water aquifers and other environmental problems. Due to lack of regulations and concern for the environment mining industry have left millions of hectares of unreclamied abandoned mine lands all over the world and same us true of India also. It has been correctly stated that only war caused more destruction to the environment than surface mining. Doon-Mussoorie hill which was known for the its rich resource like limestone, marble, gypsum and rock phosphate has experienced vast environmental problems due to reckless quarrying of mineral from these areas. The total of 6719.81 ha of land is impacted by mining activities. Due to increasing ecological awareness; reclamation projects stress is given to local species but in some cases depending upon site, climate and dump characteristics. Moreover, rehabilitation of mined land is site specific; the unique properties of each mine determine the degree of vegetation establishment within the constraint of local climate. Evaluation of species is primarily concerned with survival followed by growth, but initial selection should include effective soil stabilization, soil improvement and case of propagation. For early cover primary colonizing species tend to be used. Local species may require less long-term maintenance and provide compatibility with surroundings landscape. Thus achievement of self-sustaining vegetation cover can be approached through selection and planting of native species. Surface mining plays an important role in impacting the biodiversity of area in most of the sites. Regeneration of such sites takes a long time and the changes are very unpredictable. Restoration of mining disturbed sites however, accelerates the process by initializing the vegetative growth on these sites. Evaluation a biological diversity from conservation point of view in disturbed areas focuses on measuring richness and not more complex indices of heterogeneity. More frequently the number of species in certain and vegetation types are measured but occasionally biotic features are used. Peculiarity and availability of propagules determine the pattern of floristic diversity and succession, still resource availability is also an important factor affecting the species diversity and succession. The main objective of restoration would be satisfied when importance is given on surface stabilization, long term landuse planning, ecosystem approach and adopting sustainable development strategy for the degraded ecosystem.

Importance of Sustainable Mining for Environment Conservation

Opencast mining leaving behind a barren area devoid of any vegetation, soil, fauna and eroded slopes consisting of overburden material and water with heavy sediments load. From unplanned mining operation huge amount of waste product have been dumped in adjacent areas and excavated sites had been left behind. These areas are completely devoid of vegetation and soil, so associated with various environmental problem, such as loss of forest and agricultural land, extinction of natural flora and fauna, problems of erosion and sliding, siltation of river depriving local inhabitants from getting their day to day needs of fuel, fodder, and timber etc. Unscientific and reckless exploitation of mineral deposits without any thought for consequential environmental effect became a matter of concern and produce an opposition that besides improving many legislations and regulations for further leases brought the operation to complete halt. Restoration of disturbed areas by mining is now a legal requirement. Renewals of degraded resources, land, air, water, vegetation are named differently as reclamation, restoration or rehabilitation. Reclamation refers to a new use of land following a scientific and systematic method. Restoration refers to creation original topographic and vegetative condition and restoring the previous land-use by following measures that are ecologically sound. Rehabilitation is similar to restoration to improve the visual nature of the site by improving soil, vegetation and microclimate. Reclamation of mined disturbed areas should be based on sound ecological principles which implies that the reclaimed area must acquire the properties at least to level, which existed before mining had commenced. Biological restoration and reclamation is more than mere plantation of trees. It should start with grasses for early green cover and later on should be followed by shrubs and trees. In all plantation work preference should be given to the local species is neither the first nor the last use of land, it is necessary that the entire land is reclaimed after mining for beneficial use, bearing in mind the losses that our countries is sustaining on account of continuing degradation of land resources are of staggering dimensions and constitute one Surface mining is grave threats to environment and agrarian economic progress. As the nature takes over a century to make the top soil and devastating the land is pressing socio-economic problem concerning future generation. Better planning of reclamation system to bring back abandoned land to beneficial use in short period is important part of mine plan now. Planning for post mining land-use enables the mining operation to be coordinated with concurrent land restoration works. Reclamation and afforestation involve works in operational aspects and large volume of landscape aspect. The establishment of vegetation on abandoned and active mine sites as well as the over burden heaps is rather difficult because of altered pH, lack of organic matter and moisture, coarse rock fragments and many other adverse biological and chemical factors. Consequently the plants may not find it congenital to grow on those areas, which lack good soil, favorable nutrients and water retention capacity. Plants species which can grow in harsh environment have to be selected for rehabilitation. It has been proved by several ecologists that natural reclamation is slow which force to imply artificial restoration for accelerating rapid ecosystem development. Soil performs the vital function in sustaining biological diversity and productivity so reclamation of soil should be given importance along with selection of species for reclamation. Mine spoils are deficient in nitrogen and phosphorus and some requires lime to enhance plant growth so reclamation technique for these affected sites consists of several steps, each of them playing an important role. Usually the measures taken can be categorized into two types, the mechanical and the biological. Mechanical measures are applied on the basis of topography and the quantum of measures that includes erection of structures like toe wall, gabion check dam and drop structures are important for controlling erosion, conserving soil particle and helping the vegetation to grow. Plant species which can grow in adverse environment and provide a basis for ecological restoration have to be selected only after thoroughly investigating the ecology, growth behavior and socio-economic values of various plans. Mine spoil can be used for establishment of perennial vegetation, cultivated crops, ponds over the entire area. Temporary vegetation is used to stabilize the surface until perennial vegetation can be established to hold the soil against water and wind erosion. Sustainable mining practices significantly contribute in environment conservation if used timely for people and environment.

Importance of Silvopastoral System for Sustainable Agriculture

Agroforestry is sustainable agricultural practice which provides optimum benefits to people, livestock and crops. The sustainability of natural ecosystems is also improved when it support wildlife and called silvopastoral system. Agroforestry is low-input integration of tree species into agriculture crops. For agricultural based economies where population pressure is high there implementation of silvopastoral system adds value in conserving and utilizing land for maximum benefits. Marginal lands to wildlife habitats are critical for wildlife and preservation of watersheds. Deforestation practice leads not only to loss of the forest resource but to the loss of the soil resource through erosion, damage to watersheds and amplify twirl of paucity for the poor people around globe. Silvopastoralism focuses on the production of livestock and tree products in one integrated pasture system. Silvopasture is important activity when it is economical to run a single species, cattle, under a monoculture in a large silvopastoral operation. On small farms, in the tropics diversification of animal and plant species is the most efficient utilization of the resource and provides a variety of products. Realizing the importance of silvopasture management for meeting the biomass requirement research work was initiated during the sixties at various institutions in India. The results obtained during the past three decades indicate that fodder and fuel wood production could be increased several folds from the existing levels through proper management of wastelands. The mean annual production of 8-10 t/ha was possible from various tree-grass combinations, comprising 4.5 to 5 t/ha of fodder from grasses, 1.5 to 2 t/ha of leaf fodder from tree lopping and 2 to 2.5 t/ha of fuel wood from the lopped branches. In the Shiwalik foothills of Punjab, the fodder production increased by 267 percent from the wastelands through proper management approaches, which increased the milk production by 213 percent. Lopping is fairly common in various silvipastoral plots in fact lopping is a powerful management tool for controlling crown spread, inducing light penetration and aiding recovery from injury. Frequent and excessive lopping of tree result in rapid drain of stored plant food reserves, leading to reduction in growth of tree girth and production of leaf biomass. Multi purpose trees and shrubs provide more than one significant benefit to land use system in which it grows. The common uses of trees species are wood, fodder, green manure, fruits and chemicals for medicines. Some of the trees could be nitrogen fixing with symbiotic association with Nitrogen fixing bacteria or fungi. There are more than 640 tree species which are known to fix nitrogen. Multipurpose trees are selected for plantation in wastelands so that these can take care of multivariate aspects. Grazing management is important aspect of silvopasture utilization and its maintenance. Grazing pressure rank to the communities on the basis of factors of above ground net primary production removed by various herbivores. The higher the grazing pressure higher is the rank. Overgrazing causes severe damage it eliminate valuable tree seedlings, creates deformities in trees due to repeated browsing and lopping, compaction of soil, acceleration of runoff and erosion, etc. Silvopasture system is more economical from second year onwards and started to give higher returns over variable costs. Silvopasture system promises employment to rural youth in the activities of animal husbandry, collection, processing, and manufacturing of value added products from trees and grasses. Apart from direct economic benefits, it also add the recreational and aesthetic value.

Ecological Competition for Successful Rehabilitation

Planting in degraded mine spoil can dramatically increase the rate of natural forest succession which would otherwise slow, by ameliorating soil, upgrading microclimate condition, and providing habitat for seed dispersing wildlife that can lead for a progressive enrichment of floristic diversity. The choice of species in re-vegetating mined areas is challenging in tropical forest. It has been universally accepted that grasses and legumes should form the essential and obvious choice in all the sites. Shrub planting will have special consideration for all planting areas. The need is quick coverage of affected area with tough and high resistance species. It has been accepted that establishment and maintenance of vegetation is an integral part of restoration of mined sites. Monitoring of the vegetation has not received priority and is generally considered far less exciting. In fact monitoring of restored areas is important to ascertain the impact on ecosystem components. Restored mine spoil thus requires biological monitoring to estimate the pace of development. It has also been suggested that continued monitoring of rehabilitated site may show a faster return to the pre disturbance site. Various changes taking place during ecosystem development and assessment about different indices of growth and vigor. Biological monitoring of the site can be done by collecting information about community structure and composition. Community as a social unit and as a natural aggregation of plants, which is the product of definite conditions, present, and past and it can exist when these conditions are fulfilled. Presence of particular community has existed at a site affects its species richness. Newly developed community may contain only a few species and the number increased as more species invade and established. This may take several years for a full community to develop in a new pool. The importance of the age of a single or new community is different from that of the age of the general community type. The diversity in the general community type often depends on the co-evolution of the organisms, while the diversity of a particular community is primarily due to the immigration of and colonization by existing species. An analysis of life forms and composition in reclaimed mine lands indicated that number of species and species diversity index tended to increase for the first nine years after restoration and it was also found that vegetation recovery rate was higher on the reclaimed sites than on un-reclaimed sites. Competition between species in a community may alter species richness. The harshness of the environment in some mining habitats, erosion, deforestation areas alter the relative competitive ability of the species, giving species which are well adopted to such environments the chance to survive there. In some situations for harshness of environment, may prevent invasion by one vigorous species, which could increase the diversity. For individual communities there are many factors which can the number of species presents. Some of the influences on a community are external ones, the biotic effect of the habitat. Other influences will come from within the community; the individual present will themselves affect species the diversity. One theory says that longer the community type has existed; the more species will have had the opportunity to join the community. The overall structure of the community will be determined by a combination of several features such as physical environment, community size and longevity of the species present. The community may be stable or unstable with high or low primary productivity and may change seasonally.

Ecological Monitoring and Social Assessment for Sustainable Rehabilitation

Mining of mineral and mankind are intricately interwoven in society today. The world’s economy depends to a great extent on mining. Though mining is attributed as important industry next to agriculture, however environmental problems resulting due to mining activities could not be underestimated. It is essentially important developmental activity, where ecology suffers but this ecological loss could minimize though proper monitoring and assessment for sustainable afforestation. The area of land currently disturbed by mining in the world is estimated approximately 386,000 hectares. For sustainable management of planted forest sites it is important to assess biodiversity which give information on progress of forest development at various stages of trees, shrubs and herbs. It is believed that the restoration of biological diversity use to induce changes at community level and have an advantage to provide much information in a single index. It has been found that abundance, dominance, frequency, density and importance value index changes serve as indicators of habitat rehabilitation. Monitoring of ecological indicators gives guidance for diversity maintenance. The diversity was closely related with community development. The change in diversity due to shift in dominance from year to year has been found to be related to colonization by many accessory plant species. It is observed that increase distance from the mine site support increase in diversity and species richness index values because of less erosion and more availability of nutrients for plant growth. Most of the mining activities have been carried out in the area where the farming and forestry activities form integral part of livelihoods. Due to loss in agricultural cultivated and forest lands people lives in the area loss their livelihoods which impacted their socio-economic status. On other hand developmental activities also create opportunities for employment and development in the area. Socio-economic conditions of the inhabitants of mineral belts have both positive and negative socio-economic implications of mining activities. Mining activities have raised the income of local people and changed the standard of living of common man to a considerable extent.

Land Suitability for Biomass Production and Livelihoods

Soil is the function of geology, climate, time and biotic factors. Soil acquires properties in accordance with the forces which act upon it. Accumulation of debris resulting from weathering of rock and decomposition of organic material help in increasing fertility of soil. Breaking down influences soil formation chemically and physically. This process develops new chemical compounds and provides a new distribution and association of the minerals so that the resultant soil has composition which influences plant growth. Soil chemical properties, nitrogen and phosphorus distribution significantly contribute in good. Soil pH is important to see the soil reaction with environment. Acidic soil pH and soil texture from silty to silty loam in the temperate species is common feature where in tropical forest soil texture found silty loam to silty clay loam. The highest value of exchangeable magnesium (Mg) is also dominant feature of tropical forest. Due to large size of leaves which falls on the ground contribute to organic carbon, exchangeable calcium (Ca) and potassium (K) percent in tropical forest. Soil properties influenced by soil depth in deep weathering profile under tropical forest due to good roots penetration. There is inverse relation of pH and organic carbon content so lower pH in soil has been attributed to the higher organic carbon content, while distribution of organic carbon related with biological activities. Gradual increase in clay content of soil with depth indicate translocation of clay during pedogensis. Increase of silt and clay ratio from lower horizons to the surface soil indicated increased weathering and soil formation. Organic carbon showed a gradual decrease with increasing depth in general soil profile because the organic activities with leaves happen only on the top. Numbers of stems per hectares are not related with soil productivity but basal area of stem is related to soil productivity. Soils in tropical found to contain high level of organic matter, pH, and electrical conductivity, exchangeable Ca, Mg, Na, K and total bases. Land capability is also refer the production capacity of land. Land capability classes are based on type of degradation in the land. Degraded land is having one or more limitations of slope, erosion, stoniness, rockiness, shallow soils, wetness, climate which affect soil production capacity. Least degraded lands have a great potential for producing fodder, fuel, fiber and moderate quality timber by adopting existing technologies for restoration. The technologies could be such as soil and water conservation measures supplemented with proper silvopastoral management, combination of afforestation and grassland development. Increase in forage due to soil erosion control. About 13% land area is under potentially productive wasteland and a substantial part of which can be reclaimed through Silvipasture system. It has been realized that the entire socio-economic fabric of this region rests on proper management of degraded pasturelands. The arid regions also comprises of a variety of plant biomorphs – trees, shrubs, under shrubs, perennial and annual grasses. This heterogeneity ensures better utilization of environmental resources as the biomorphs are of different heights and their root extends to different depths. Optimization of various biomorphs of our ecosystem through their preservation by proper timing of stocking in grazing and felling for firewood.

Restoration Ecotechnology for Mine Rehabiltation

Suitable techniques are very important for restoring mined area. The formation of biotopes by spontaneous vegetation development is essential for eco-development. Afforestation and the ecological dynamics of spoil site forest are of very high silvicultural importance and must be taken into account when creating and managing reclamation forest. The removal of topsoil, stock piling and revegetation techniques for restoration of mining sites is very important. Several techniques include reliance on natural forest vegetation, mixed commercial species planting of mostly exotic timber trees. Direct sowing with native early successional tree species and mixed native species planting is on least risk of failure and favorable for enhancing succession to start. The revegetion methods for the strong acidic coal spoil observed plants of Ficus formosana; Rhus chinensis Festuea arundinacia and Axonopus affinis used as pioneer plants for the restoration of strongly acidic mine spoil. Control burning of rehabilitation sites has the potential to increase the establishment of native species in rehabilitated. For maintaining fertility of land 15 cm topsoil should be stripped and respired on the rehabilitated pits at a sallower depth to maximize the establishment and seedling emergence via soil seed bank. Tree seedlings should be planted in a partially stabilized mine spoil area for amelioration affect on soil. Allowing natural process to rehabilitate the walls of abandoned quarries are the recruitment of an uncommon but native component of biodiversity reduced initial cost and also reduced long term maintenance cost. It is recommended that quarries should not be rehabilitated by back filling of exposed quarry walls. Site preparation and management for rehabilitation of mined sites include weed control, soil ripping to 500 mm and stock proof fencing. Maiden cut should be made after initial 1-year establishment period to facilitate coppicing in newly grown trees. Mixing the mine spoil with black soil, fly ash and gypsum at the iron ore overburden results in better seedling growth. The detoxification of the mine spoils by surface application of limestone with or without fertilizer to facilitate colonization by woody species is suitable practice. Different measures for rehabilitation of mined areas and over burden have been tested and models developed through scientific research. Site preparation, tree species trials, planting methods moisture conservation methods in mine spoil help in developing successful restoration. Soil and water conservation measures in mine spoil areas are important before going for plantation. The conservation measures included trench mound planting, control of gullying by erecting gabion structures and providing vegetative checks are important. Mining sites could be revegetated only after reclamation measures. In opencast coal mining areas soil and plants should be taken as independently for the formation and maintenance of healthy forest. The success of biorestoration of surface mined lands derelict by surface mined lands which depends on assessment of site specific problems, selection of appropriate plant species to ensure revival of the ecosystem and application of suitable practice for the site. Direct seedling and planting seedlings are suitable methods for establishing different mine sites. The emphasis of restoring conservation values on rehabilitated mines, direct seedling is preferred method of establishment which creates a natural distribution of trees. Different techniques and choice of tree species developed for forest regeneration on barren lands and mined out sites. The biological reclamation with herbs grasses in the initial stage followed by shrubs and trees resulted in thick vegetation. Improvement and sustained stable productive plant communities. Suitable practical way to establish a productive plantation is form nursery development at site.

Community Structure and Composition

There is some generalization that competition for nutrient alone is primary factor that control species composition in plant communities. The modification in composition and distribution of plant species on limestone and granite soil as a results of improvement in soil properties has been reported. Similar results of modifications in community stability with enrichment of organic matter were observed on reclaimed phosphatic mine spoils. Richness, diversity and evenness of vegetation upon rehabilitation of gypsum mine spoiled lands in the Indian arid zone. They found that two perennial species increased in richness with time. It was concluded that natural succession process was accelerated by rehabilitation providing stability to the habitat. Existing plant communities in Eastern coalfield areas to describe the vegetation type quantitatively in terms of species frequency, structure density and distribution. They found that agricultural land were dominated by rice waster lands acieballatus, herbs (Argerbob maxicana and Andrographis paniculata & shurbs Lantana camara and forests dominated by Bassica latifolia, Madhuca longifolia, Shorea robusta & Azadiracta indica. Forest ecosystem on mine spoil in central Germany found a strong relation existed between mined land site conditions and tree species composition development and productivity. The restoration of tropical moist forest on bauxite mined lands in the Brazilian Amazon. They evaluated forest structure and composition in 9 to 12 year old stands establish on bauxite mined land using four different restoration techniques following initial site preparation and top soil replacement. Vegetation mapping on 15 dumps of the Thuringia mining areas using Brann Blanquet technique. He founded that the plant communities are dominated by Robina pseudoacecia, Populus sps and Betula sps. The vegetation dynamics of cliff faces in abandoned limestone quarries in southern Ontario, Canada. It was found that the quarry walls had the strongest influence on vegetation community composition and abundance. During the first 70 year after abandonment, species richness was high and variable, community composition was also extremely variable during this period. The final form of the vegetation community on the vertical cliff was similar to the naturally occurring community on neighboring areas. 12-year-old rehabilitation mined area was found that the vegetation present in those areas showed species composition, which was similar between seed store and the vegetation. There was a large difference in the densities with which species occuring at much higher densities in the topsoil. After 17 years, regeneration of mined sites at tomago, Austalia is subsequently slower and the mined site had not returned to the vegetation structure of the predisturbed state. Under story height and the amount of vegetation on mined sites have not achieved the levels in the original forest, although canopy cover did seem to have reached pre-distrubance state. Cho An analysis of Raunkiacr plant life forms and composition over a 10-year period following various restoration treatments of mined low in Korea Republic. No of species and species diversity index tender to increase for the first a years but the indices tended to decrease on sites 11 year after restoration. The community structure of vegetation and biomass production in an ecologically restored rock-phosphate mine after ten yeas of restoration. They found that the total above ground standing crop biomass was 43-44 tonnes per hectare was mainly contributed by tree species. Soni et al, (1989) studied the succession on one year old (unreclamimed) and 2,3 and 5 years old r4eclamied rock phosphate mine spoils at Maldeota, Dehradun. Relative contribution of herbs and grasses increase with age while contribution of shrubs and trees decreased because dense herbaceous vegetation discouraged the invasion of tree and shrub species and 7 grasses and sedge species invaded the spoils. Diversity of naturally colonized species showed no co-relation with the diversity of planted species. Reclamation of mine spoil in Himalayan moist temperate forest areas helps in achieving richer species diversity as compared to natural forest. In composition of naturally colonizing species in 607 year old bauxite over burdens at Amarkantak and 3 years old cola mine over burden at Dhanpuri, Madhya Pradesh, India planted with difference tree species. Coalmine overburden were comparatively more hospitable than bauxite spoil. Vegetation structure and development of soil on mined lands when once proceeds, changes with age of vegetation. Recent research in a number of tropical countries has shown that tree planting on degraded mined sites can dramatically increase the other wise slow rate of natural forest succession by ameliorating soil and under storey microclimatic conditions and providing habitat for seed dispersing wildlife that can lead to enrichment of floristic diversity. The biological diversity of mine areas increased significantly and was higher than that of the adjoining area after 3 years of reclamation of mined area. Plant communities are often subjected to disturbances and these conditions may facilitate co-existence and maintain high diversity. Revagetating the mined disturbed sites with various species contributes to the full development of ecosystem by encouraging the survival of less aggressive plant species. Argued that the change in species composition could be affected by positive feedback from nutrient cycling in the ecosystem. This positive feedback modifies the environment and makes it more suitable to facilitate invasion and a long-term succession change. Species composition of 49 reclaimed coal strip mines ranging in age from 10 to 70 years and reported that structural characteristic of the vegetation were similar to mature upland forest on the older and favourable sites. Reported that plant community composition changed and species diversity increased with age in coalmines in Madhya Pradesh One of the most obvious features of a biological community is the pattern of relative abundance among the species. A low value of evenness indicated that one or few species are highly dominant, while other are present in very small amounts. A high value of evenness indicates that all the species in the community have rather similar abundance and share the reverse equally. Variation in resource availability has been found to affect the abundance pattern. Species richness increases with increase in phosphorus status in soil. Diversity and floristic composition are highly predictable from environmental and geographical factors.

Challenges in Natural Forest Regeneration in Mine Rehabilitation

Natural regeneration of secondary forests on degraded lands is uncertain process impeded by combination of factors including human pressure, recurrent of fires persistence of dominant grasses and other non-woody species, unfavorable non-woody species, unfavourable microclimate conditions, soil infertility exhaustion of soil seed banks and root stock and low rate of seed input from surrounding forest. Several hundreds years are required for the plant community to reach stage of successional stability. Mixed native species has improved the fertility status and productive capacity of phosphate mine spoil and favored biological invasion of various natural invader. Natural invasion of trees into revegetated sites can be affected by the types of plant species already growing at the site as well as by resources availability. Ecologists have shown that resource competition alleopathy and facilitation have important effect on plant community organization. The natural revegetation by trees was a complex process controlled primarily by dispersal mechanism of tree species. The mined sites pre-vegetated produced by various types of mining may have intrinsic value because they represent perturbation dependent plant communities of early successional status. Plots planted with early sucessional species characteristic of particular region are more conducive to the entry of other species. Sometimes eucalyptus tree contribute higher input on different mine spoils, the large areas of ground surface beneath eucalyptus remains completely bore ground or limited extent vegetation. The use of legumes in seed mixtures for long-term supply of nitrogen is necessary for the colonization and development of low maintenance vegetation cover on mine disturbed sites. The vegetation of limestone dolomite quarries appears to have features of both primary and secondary succession, which was relatively rapid in limestone mines. Natural invasion by various plant species takes place with the age of spoil. The predominance of legumes on revegetated mine sites suggested that there is an advantage in colonizing legumes on spoils especially low in available nitrogen. The older mined sites are considerably less sucessionally advanced that those sites having spoiled with relatively more silt and clay. During restoration of surface of mines globally ultimate objective of reclamation is to create diverse and stable ecosystem so initial reclamation should be designed to stabiles habitat for natural succession.

Importance of Corporate Social Responsibility for Community Development

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR) looks combination of corporate, social and responsibility but it is more than the words used in addressing the CSR. Due to name as CSR common mass think it is a corporate thinking for tackling environmental, social and government problems. In principal CSR is community development program which engage l people around business as stakeholder. Philip Kotler and Nancy Lee defined CSR as “A commitment to improve community well being through discretionary business practices and contributions of corporate resources”. CSR is continuing commitment by business to behave ethically and contribute to social and economical development while improving the quality of life of the workforce, their families and the local community around them. CSR is multi layered concept that can differentiate into four interrelated aspects economic, legal, ethical and philanthropic responsibilities. In new paradigm of globalization, the economic development and liberalization of economic policies is priority in developing countries to compete with developed countries. This is being increasingly realized that principles of shared governance benefit both the economy and the business. This is not only help in ensuring long term growth of business but also provide sustainable development. CSR also helps in lowering cost of economics resources through local and regional development of area. The concept of good governance through ethical business suggests holistic approach both as tool for wealth creation and as useful means for social and sustainable development. In market oriented economic structure corporate sector is the prime mover of economic growth. Employees, community, suppliers and shareholders today are redefining the role of corporate taking into account the corporate in the broader responsibility towards society. Environment apart economic performance which evaluated whether companies are conducting their role in socially responsible manner or not. CSR is a business imperative which pursued as voluntary business initiative or for legal compliance reasons. CSR is link to sustainable development and way to manage businesses. There is understanding that businesses invest money in society so they the one who will decide upon the modus operandi of the CSR initiative but it is not true. CSR activities are combination of mandate of different stakeholders needs must be considered within the local context and culture for implementation of any program and activity. Budgets are only part of resources planning for development which need well accompanied by people for successful CSR plan. The competition among different business is increasing day by day due to consequence of cross border trade, multinational enterprises and global supply chains.

Significance of Soil, Biological and Mineralogical Studies for Sustainable Afforestation in Himalaya

The Himalaya is the greatest and the youngest of all mountain systems which extend with a smooth sweep from northwest to southeast of about 2500 km and its width ranges between 250 to 300 km.The Himalaya consists of four longitudinal belts separated by faults. Its geological and topographical characters are strikingly different. To the north of the plains is Siwalik belt whose width ranges from 10 to 50 km and altitude exceeds 900m. The next known is Lesser Himalayan zone with width ranging between 60 to 80 km and average height rises to 3000 m the third belt is the Great Himalaya comprising of high snow capped peaks. This zone consists of lower alpine zone upto 4800 m and upper snow bound zone usually above 5000 m. Finally the Trans-Himalayan zone with width ranging upto 40km and containing the valley of the rivers rising behind the Great Himalaya. The Siwalik and Lesser Himalaya are two different geological units having variations in their age. The lesser Himalaya refers to the litho-tectonic province which is demarcated to the south by Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and separated to the north by the Main Central Thrust (MCT). It predominantly consists of Proterozoic-Cambrain shelf to shallow marine sequences disposed in two main belts viz. The inner carbonate belt and the outer Krol belt. Mussoorie forest division of Garhwal Himalaya has been attracting the attention of soil scientists, ecologist and geologists from all over the world since the early part of nineteenth century because it is confluence of all the rock formation resulting in different soil and vegetation types. The Garhwal Himalaya is a mass of intricate folding and faulting and composed of igneous, sedimentary and metamorphic rocks. Its borders touch Tibet in the north, Himachal in the west, the plains of Uttar Pradesh in the south and Kumaon in the east. The mineralogical studies have special importance in forestry research. Soil is one of the most important factors for tree growth which is mainly governed by weathering and climatic conditions. The soil is formed from the rocks by weathering process. The rate of growth and type of species depend upon the mineral composition of soil and parent rock. The study of soil has become important due to worldwide problem of conserving biological diversity. Although soil is formed by the result of weathering of parent rock, effect of climate, topography, plants, animals and age of land. All the factors effect the formation of the soil in several ways. The close relationship between geology, soil and vegetation is clearly visible by the effect shown by parent material and strong biological activity on soil formation and characteristics. Geology and soil are the controlling factors in the local distribution of vegetation particularly in regions where mean annual rainfall is under 2000 mm and their detailed investigation is necessary in order to study their effect on the forest of the area dealt with. The Mussoorie forest division of Garhwal Himalaya experiences lot of damage due to deforestation, overgrazing, fire, road building and mining activities. The basic needs of common man in the forest are fuel, fodder, food, housing and manure from the field. Fodder and fuel are still considered as free resources available in Himalayan region, so forests are exploited wherever they are available without caring their ecological and environmental effect on future generation .The ecological consequences of excessive run-off causes land slides, degradation and dryness in the area. For sustainable management of forest vegetation in the area, soil, geology and biota are important factors. Scientific investigation may be helpful in improving and regenerating degraded hills by protection of slopes through raising vegetation suited to parent material and soil.

Kalmegh & Shatawar (Andrographis paniculata Nees.) : Medicinal Plants for Successful Agroforestry

Kalmegh (Andrographis paniculata Nees.) and Shatawar (Asparagus racemosus Willid,) are two important and common medicinal plant which are suitable for different agromediculture system. Kalmegh belonging to the family Acanthaceae is one of the nineteen species of the genus Andrographis, which is indigenous to India and has been used in Indian system of medicine since time immemorial. The fresh and dried leaves of Kalmegh and juice extracted from the herb are official drugs in Indian Pharmacopoeia. It grows wild as an under shrub in tropical, moist, deciduous forests. The plant is found in the plains throughout India and Sri Lanka. In India, it is distributed in the states of Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Bihar, Karnataka, Kerala, Madhya Pradesh and West Bengal. Kalmegh is an annual herbaceous or shrubby decumbent or erect plant, 0.3-1.0 meter high. The branches are sharply quadrangular, often narrowly winged towards the apical region. The flowers are small in solitary panicles with rose coloured corolla, which is hairy externally. The seeds are numerous, yellowish-brown and glabrous. Kalmegh is a hardy plant and can be grown on variety of soils. However sandy loam soil rich in organic matter is good for its growth and yield. Under natural conditions, this crop is found growing abundantly in moist, shady places and sometimes dry forests also. It can be easily propagated either by seeds or cuttings. Seeds start germinating in about 8-10 days and transplanted into main field when they are 45-50 days old. The crop is ready for harvest after about 90-120 days of sowing, when the plants start flowering. At this stage, they are harvested by cutting the plants at the base, leaving 10-15 centimeter of the stem for regeneration. Totally 2-3 harvests can be made in a year. The average yield is 2-2.5 tonnes per hectare of dry herb. Shatavari or shatawar (Asparagus racemosus Willid,) belonging to family liliaceae is a woody climber. It is found throughout India, in areas upto 1400 meter elevation and also common in shade and tropical climate, leaves are reduced to cladodes, which are curved terete, spreading in tufts of 2-6. Flowers are in racemes and whitish to creamish in colour. Fruit is berry, which is globose and usually red when ripe. Seeds are 2-6 and black in colour, it generally flowers during July – December. Shatavari can be easily propagated by seeds and division of roots. It can be grown on variety of soil but it prefers sandy well drained soil. Seedlings should be planted preferably on ridges with a spacing of 30x30 cm. Harvesting of roots can be done from 24 to 51 months after date of planting. The roots are sweet, bitter, cooling, emollient, nervine tonic, constipating, ophthalmic, anodyne, galactagogue, aphrodisiac, diuretic, rejuvenating, antispasmodic and tonic. They are used in nervous disorders, inflammations, vitiated conditions of vata and pitta and general debility etc. The drug is one amongst the ten foetus promoting drugs as described in Charakasamhita. The drug has been placed amongst Varundigana in Astanghradaya. These drugs alleviate, kapha, obesity, dyspepsia, stiffness of legs, headache, abdominal tumor and abscess.

Ecological Refugees of Tehri Dam and their Problems

Annually, the lives and livelihoods of nearly ten million people across the globe are affected by forced displacement from the dam construction and many infrastructure project sites. Hydroelectric dam projects have an enormous potential to provide electricity, to increase agricultural productivity through irrigation, and to control flooding, all with the goal of improving people’s well-being. The construction of Tehri dam started in 1972 and completed in the year 2002. The dam was expected to generate 2400 megawatts of electricity with the capacity to irrigate a quarter million hectares of land. Despite the anticipated benefits, more than 125 villages and one town, Tehri, involving a total of approximately 100,000 people who are mostly peasants, have to resettled due to construction activities and water impoundment. Tehri Dam is situated in the highly active Central Himalayan Seismic Zone. It is designed to withstand earthquakes of up to 7.2 on the Richter scale although experts predict that earthquakes of magnitude 8.5 or more could strike this region. If the dam were to burst, several major towns downstream of the dam with a total population of over half a million people could be wiped out Landslides are common on the steep slopes above Tehri’s reservoir. Although land acquisition started in 1979, resettlement of affected people is far from complete. There is no master plan for rehabilitation nor even a clear estimate of the number of people affected. Construction of a dam affects people in many ways, from displacing them because of water impoundment to creating new habitats around the dam, water reservoir, and irrigation canals. The existing resettlement policies around the world have primarily focused on the issues of land and housing compensation and, to some extent, providing basic amenities for project-affected people but not considering the other socio-economic factors. The economy in this region is primarily agrarian, with approximately 85% of the adult population practicing intensive agriculture. Although most are farmers, only 10.3% of the land in the region is arable, and soil fertility is significantly greater along the narrow river valley due to alluvial soil deposits. The remaining cultivatable land consists mostly of narrow strips on hilly slopes and is used for dry terrace cultivation. More than 90 % of arable land is used for food grains. Animal husbandry is also an important economic activity and, in most cases, supplements agricultural produce. The availability and accessibility of forest land and grazing grounds determines the number of livestock and other animals. Though goats and sheep are the main herding animals, most people keep cows, oxen, and buffaloes for milk and plowing and chickens for eggs and meat. Other economic activities include horticulture, forestry, and cottage industries. These resettlers were forcibly displaced from their mountain homes to the plains in the foothills of the Himalayas. This forest land had never been inhabited by humans and is poorly developed with unhygienic conditions, including an inadequate sewage system and polluted drinking water. In addition, the region’s hot and humid climate makes this area a fertile breeding ground for various vectors of parasitic agents. Construction of a dam affects people in many ways, from displacing them because of water impoundment to creating new habitats around the dam, water reservoir, and irrigation canals. The existing resettlement policies around the world have primarily focused on the issues of land and housing compensation and, to some extent, providing basic amenities for project-affected people but not considering the other socio-economic factors. The economy in this region is primarily agrarian, with approximately 85% of the adult population practicing intensive agriculture. Although most are farmers, only 10.3% of the land in the region is arable, and soil fertility is significantly greater along the narrow river valley due to alluvial soil deposits. The remaining cultivatable land consists mostly of narrow strips on hilly slopes and is used for dry terrace cultivation. More than 90 % of arable land is used for food grains. Animal husbandry is also an important economic activity and, in most cases, supplements agricultural produce. The availability and accessibility of forest land and grazing grounds determines the number of livestock and other animals. Though goats and sheep are the main herding animals, most people keep cows, oxen, and buffaloes for milk and plowing and chickens for eggs and meat. Other economic activities include horticulture, forestry, and cottage industries.

Environmental Management to Prevention Malaria

After scorching summer of May and June at start of monsoon Malaria is common water born disease. The reason of malaria spread is due to lack of attention on water accumulation around habitations. Accumulated water is the breeding ground of mosquitoes which cause spread of malaria. Mosquito breeding can easily managed and handle if proper action and control taken in time. Malaria is an acute illness, which manifests itself with the onset of fever and has an acute incubation period of 7 days or longer. An illness developing less than one week after first possible exposure is not likely to be Malaria. Malaria is transmitted by the female anopheles mosquito which is characterised by length of the palps which is equal to that of the proboscis. Anopheles mosquitoes are active between sunset and sunrise. The most severe form is Plasmodium falciparum. The initial symptoms, which may be mild, may not be easy to recognise as being due to Malaria. It is important that the possibility of P. falciparum is considered in all cases of unexplained fever starting at any time between the 7th day of possible first exposure to Malaria and 3 months after the last possible exposure. Malaria exists throughout the year in the majority of India below 2000 m with 40-50% of cases due to P. falciparum. Prompt diagnosis and treatment of the infection are crucial in treating malaria Typical symptoms include fever and flu like illness such as headaches, tiredness and muscle aches. Nausea, vomiting and diarrhoea may also occur. P. falciparum if not promptly treated, may cause kidney failure, seizures, mental confusion, coma and death. Mosquitoes biting could prevent with help of physical barriers like bed nets mosquito repellent, clothing but environmental management is the most effective way of controlling mosquito breeding and malaria spread. First step is to remove all standing water sources or covered and discard items that collect water in old tyres, pots and cooler. Fogging should be carried out to prevent the spread of mosquito-borne disease. It should be conducted within a two week period and carried out in the early evening or early morning when the air is cool and the wind is not greater than 6km/h. Fogging should be directed under buildings, roofs, in surrounding foliage and vegetation, rubbish collections and shaded waterways around facilities. In case of fever symptoms seek diagnosis and treatment to ensure that any unexpected fevers or flu like symptoms are reported and diagnosed as quickly as possible after onset.

Economic Analysis for Beneficial Tree Plantation

Tree planting is being a long gestation venture, where heavy costs are incurred in initial years and benefits are realized after many years. In this situation one cannot go for comparing benefits and costs until they are discounted and brought to a common year say at the beginning of the plantation project. For this purpose benefit-cost ratio analysis and net present worth analysis was done assuming a guiding rate of return equal to banks rates. Benefit-Cost Ratio (B-C ratio) of plantation was calculated by dividing the net present benefits by the net present costs of plantation of a particular site. The Net Present Worth (NPW) of plantation on the other hand, was calculated by subtracting net present costs out of net present benefits. However, the environmental and social benefits of trees were not incorporated in the Benefit-Cost analysis. The net present benefits and net present costs are calculated. Any plantation project is beneficial or worth establishment if the corresponding net present value comes to be positive or benefit cost ratio more than one. The monetary value of various benefits both in terms of lopping as well as final harvest were procured from the local villagers, resource persons, timber merchants etc. Since fuel wood is collected from the plants by yearly lopping by the villagers, so its valuation was done on the basis market price. Fuel wood, fodder was also collected from the plants by yearly lopping. The tree leaf fodder was valued on the basis of prevalent market price of fodder. Timber of different species was valued on the basis of average sale price of a tree of given age and species minus value of fuel wood, pole, fencing material etc. obtained from that tree. Species have not been included in the valuation of timber if it is not harvested for wood supply. People for their own use may collect some of seeds, fruits, grasses, without making any monetary payment. The market value of the products, which are collected without any monetary payment, needs to be assessed. For economic analysis purpose, the prices prevailing in the nearby markets can be used after adjusting them for other costs. Plantation will also improve fertility of soil. The quality of soil that has been put under tree cultivation improve due to control on open grazing, fixation or uptake of nutrients by trees, decay of grass and fallen tree leaves, adoption of various soil conservation and water harvesting measures, etc. In order to assess the impact of tree plantation on soil quality a ‘with or without’ approach is very good. The quality of soil in the protected plantation area can be compared with the adjoining outside area, which is used for open grazing and other needs of the villagers. Improved in soil fertility could calculated on the basis of cost of manure required to achieve the existing fertility.